Understanding Meritocracy

Meritocracy is a social system in which success and status in life depend primarily on individual talents, abilities, and effort. It is a social system in which people advance on the basis of their merits. A meritocratic system contrasts with aristocracy, for which people advance on the basis of the status and titles of family and other relations.   From the days of Aristotle, who coined the term ethos, the idea of awarding positions of power to those most capable have been a part of political discussion not only for governments but for business endeavors as well. Many Western societies--the United States chief among them--are commonly considered to be meritocracies, meaning these societies are built on the belief that anyone can make it with hard work and dedication. Social scientists often refer to this as the bootstrap ideology, evoking the popular notion of pulling oneself up by the bootstraps.   However, many challenge the validity of the position that Western societies are meritocracies, perhaps rightfully so. Widespread evidence exists, to varying degrees, within each of these societies of structural inequalities and systems of oppression designed and developed specifically to limit opportunities based on class, gender, race, ethnicity, ability, sexuality, and other social markers. Aristotles Ethos and Meritocracy In discussions of rhetoric, Aristotle relates the epitome of his understanding of the word ethos as the mastery of a particular subject.   Rather than determining merit based on the modern state of affairs as exemplified by the political system in place at the time, Aristotle argued that it should come from a traditional understanding of aristocratic and oligarchical structures that define good and knowledgeable. In 1958, Michael Young wrote a satirical paper mocking the Tripartite System of British education called The Rise of the Meritocracy, declaring that merit is equated with intelligence-plus-effort, its possessors are identified at an early age and selected for appropriate intensive education, and there is an obsession with quantification, test-scoring, and qualifications. The term has come to frequently be described in modern day sociology and psychology as any act of judgment based on merit. Although some disagree about what qualifies as true merit, most now agree that merit should be the primary concern for selecting an applicant for a position. Social  Inequality and Merit Disparity In modern times, especially in the United States, the idea of a merit-based-only system of governance and business creates a disparity, as the availability of resources to cultivate merit are largely predicated upon ones current and historic socioeconomic status. Thus, those born into higher socioeconomic standing--those who have more wealth--have access to more resources than those born into lower standing.   Unequal access to resources has a direct and significant effect on the quality of education a child will receive all the way from kindergarten through university. The quality of ones education, among other factors related to inequalities and discrimination, directly affects the development of merit and how meritorious one will appear when applying for positions. In his 2012 book Meritocratic Education and Social Worthlessness, Khen Lampert argues that a kinship exists between merit-based scholarships and education and social Darwinism, wherein only those given opportunities from birth are able to survive natural selection: By awarding only those who possess the means to afford a higher-quality education, either through intellectual or financial merit, a disparity is institutionally created between the impoverished and the wealthy, those born with inherent disadvantages and those born into socioeconomic prosperity. While meritocracy is a noble ideal for any social system, achieving it first requires recognizing that social, economic, and political conditions may exist which make it impossible. To achieve it, then, such conditions must be corrected.

Tips For A Successful Career - 904 Words

What should you do to forge a successful, gratifying career? Briefly explain each of the four dimensions that should be considered. Where do you need to improve? What is your plan to accomplish your improvement? To forge a successful career you should be a specialist, a generalist, self-reliant , connected and also be able to actively manage your relationship with your organization and be able to survive and thrive in the world. According to the text it is said you should be a specialist and a generalist, since in your career you do not just want to be a specialist, you want to advance up and get into higher positions in which your responsibility increases, you will deal with more people and and understand if not all at least more areas of the organization. To be a specialist you need to be skillful expert in a particular valuable area which will help give the firm and the customers a more concrete and knowledgable value. To be a generalist means to have a wide range of knowledge about diverse areas in the organization. To be self-reliant means to be autonomous and take responsibility for your own actions. As a human who wants to grow it is our duty to go the extra mile and do what is necessary to grow without the help of a boss or a company, we must try to be entrepreneurs and take risk and see where we make mistakes, work hard towards improving those mistakes via practise and rise upwards. To be connected means to have a lot of good relations with clients and peopleShow MoreRelatedTips For A Freelance Contractor1067 Words   |  5 PagesTip#1: Be Careful With The Niche You Choose Today you will find that almost all professionals can freelance right from the comfort of their home, being able to choose what projects they would like to be a part of and decide the pace of their work. From writers, designers, editors, publishers, programmers, IT consultants, content managers, investment consultants, lawyers, dieticians, SEO experts and even multimedia experts can easily find freelance assignments to earn a steady income. However, theRead MoreGen200 Continuing Academic Success Essay1253 Words   |  6 Pageswanting to be on the cutting edge. Workers and leaders also need to stay on the cutting edge as well if they desire to excel in their careers. Often, this means that the working adult will return to a learning environment to earn a certification or degree in their field. Returning to school can be tough in these economically changing times; however, successful adult students will establish clear educational goals to gain higher responsibility and pay increas es in their current positions and toRead MoreDealing with Change in Life646 Words   |  3 PagesWe all have dealt with change at one point in our life. 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Being successful as a student requires determination, preparing for situationsRead MoreBenefits Of Home Sales Job937 Words   |  4 PagesMany people don’t realize that students who have jobs as in-home sales representatives benefit from experiences that prepare students for the future as well as providing them with career opportunities, stimulating income, and working as a business person. Some peo ple may be quick to assume that students working in in-home sales jobs are unsafe, a waste of time, or has no benefit to them. However there are many beneficial uses of in-home sales job as students that prepare for the future. PublicRead MoreThe College Transfer Success Class Essay926 Words   |  4 PagesCollege Transfer Success class I have learned about what is needed to be successful in college and in my career. So far we have learned about degree choices, college culture, student development and our own personal learning styles and skills. Through this class I feel more confident about my future and my success in finding a college and career I will enjoy. My career choice is law school. I am considering this career because I would be interacting with people and I have always been interestedRead MoreThe Activity of Planning a Career1620 Words   |  7 PagesCareer planning is not an activity that should be done once -- in high school or college -- and then left behind as we move forward in our jobs and careers. Rather, career planning is an activity that is best done on a regular basis -- especially given the data that the average worker will change careers (not jobs) multiple times over his or her lifetime. And its never too soon or too late to start your career planning. Printer-Friendly Version Share on linkedin Share on facebook ShareRead MoreThe Hunt Is On : Millennials And The Online Job Search854 Words   |  4 PagesThe Hunt is On: Millennials and the Online Job Search If you are about to graduate or have recently graduated, then you’re probably looking for a job to start your career. Chances are that your family has been trying to give you advice on how to get a job, and while they mean well, job hunting today isn’t anything like it used to be before computers became so big. Everyone always tells you to â€Å"put yourself out there† and â€Å"make sure you show them you want it by calling to check your resume,† butRead MoreInterview With A Social Worker1330 Words   |  6 Pagesworker whom led me to develop my aspiration for this career. Michelle Hayes is a private practice counselor, who has encountered much experience and knowledge through social work agencies, leading her to be very successful. For this assignment, I decided to interview Michelle Hayes, because not only did she counsel me, and positively impact my life, but I would be more than pleasured to be enlightened with knowing how she became so wise and succ essful, as well as why. Michelle entered the field ofRead MoreHow To Be A Good Entrepreneur1021 Words   |  5 Pagesa good entrepreneur: 1. Experience in career Those having experience in career employed and successful implement responsibility during the career usually were capable of doing business decision that is good compared them that green. This group also possess bright outlook to get capital and usually their effort never afford halfway. For example, Mydin is excellent example in this matter. Those who there is follow the talk surely have heard experience career. 2. Business planning There are opinions

Internet Laws Essay Example For Students

Internet Laws Essay Cyber Space Law Right now there is a very interesting war being waged in the court rooms across America. It is a battle for the rights of citizens on the Internet. The Internet is a fairly new medium gaining wide popularity in 1994. Because of its incredible growth in popularity in a very short amount of time it has been hard to regulate. The first act to come out regarding the Internet and Freedom of Speech was PL 99-508 the Electronic Communications and Privacy Act of 1986 . This act consisted of two parts, title I and title II. Title I Interception of Communications and Related Matters. Basically takes the existing laws and updates them to include computers. Where before it was illegal to intercept private telephone calls, it now says it is illegal to intercept private computer transmissions. It also includes a provision to make it legal to intercept public radio transmissions like it is with public radio programs. It also allows Internet Service Providers to keep a log of who called and their activity on-line to protect themselves. Title II Stored Wire and Electronic Communications and Transactional Records Access. This provision adds sections to Title 18 of the United States Code (USC). In section 2701 Unlawful Access to Stored Communications; it makes it a federal offense to hack into a computer system. Actually what it says is that it is not illegal to gain access but once you do gain access, by mistake or intention, it is illegal to continue to access the computer system. This crime is punishable by $5000 or up to six months in jail. Section 2703 of USC Title 18 is the section that instructs Internet Service Providers to keep a back-up record of your activities on-line with a court order from a government entity. Then after the government notifies the individual in question, the material is either used by the agency or is destroyed. Probably the biggest battle yet over the first amendment rights so far has been the Communications Decency Act or CDA. In March 1995 Senator Jim Exon introduces legislation to criminalize online publication of any material deemed obscene, lascivious, filthy or indecent. This legislation was attached to a larger and popular Telecommunications Reform Bill. The Senate and the House voted to approve the Telecommunications Reform Bill in February 1996. After President Clinton signed the bill the ACLU filed a suit claiming it violated their First and Fifth Amendment rights. Eight days later US District Court Judge Ronald Buckwalter issues an order temporarily blocking the CDA and ruled that the CDA was unconstitutionally over broad and vague. In June 1996 a panel declares the CDA unconstitutional; the Department of Justice appeals the decision to the Supreme Court. On March 19, 1997 the Supreme Court hears the Shea vs. the ACLU case regarding the CDA. On June 26, 1997 the Supreme Court decided for the ACLU saying that the District Court was correct in holding that the CDA violated the First Amendment because it was too broad in definition. The Supreme Court however did not agree that the CDA violated the Fifth Amendment because it was too vague. With that loss, proponents of the CDA have vowed to bring new legislation. Another Bill that was introduced into legislation is the Child Online Protection Act or COPA. In March of 1998, the Child Online Protection Act was proposed to make it a federal crime for Whoever, in interstate or foreign commerce, by means of the World Wide Web, knowingly makes any communication for commercial purposes that includes any material that is harmful to minors without restricting access to such material by minors pursuant to subsection (c) should be fined not more than $50,000, imprisoned not more than 6 months, or both. The ACLU and other groups immediately filed a federal court complaint challenging the law. A temporary restraining order was granted enjoining enforcement of the law by a federal court. On February 1, 1998 a US District Court Judge Lowell Reed entered a preliminary injunction blocking the COPA. .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a , .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .postImageUrl , .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a , .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a:hover , .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a:visited , .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a:active { border:0!important; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a:active , .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9223d0a807e1fe586b4971d8a4452a4a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Single parenting and Raising Healthy Children Essay An appeal is expected. In Virginia there is a law that became effective July 1, 1996 that prohibits state employees, including employees of state colleges and universities, from using state-owned or leased computer equipment to access, download, print or store any information infrastructure files or services having sexually explicit content, except with the express permission of their agency head for a bona fide, agency-approved research project or other agency-approved undertaking. This law has been called the Virginia Net Decency Act. It is similar to the CDA law that was proposed in Congress. Six Professors from Universities or state colleges in Virginia sued to have the law repealed citing that it was unconstitutional because it: (a) violates their rights and the rights of other state employees to freedom of speech under the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution; (b) is unconstitutionally over broad and vague; and (3) violates the First Amendment and Due Process rights of public employees by establishing a system of prior restraint under which they may not speak or receive information and ideas without prior government approval. The State argued that while State employees were at work, they were public employees and not private citizens and therefore did not enjoy the same rights as private citizens. The court found for the plaintiffs saying that the Act is unreasonable because it restricts speech far beyond what is necessary. Moreover the act fails to come up with content neutral alternatives. The act was also cited as being over inclusive and under inclusive in content. Because of all this, the state of Virginia lost their case. A law that was recently argued in NYs District Court was particularly interesting to me. The law made it illegal to use any speech on the Internet that was deemed to be offensive or harmful to a minor. The ACLU fought the ruling saying that the law was an unconstitutional restriction on free speech. Interestingly enough, The ACLU called on the Commerce Clause. Citing as precedent the Supreme Court case that prohibited an Arizona law that restricted train lengths to 14 cars, the ACLU got the law overturned. They said restricting speech in New York could restrict the commerce of an Internet site in Texas. The Judge agreed and the ACLU won the case.Bibliography:

The Importance of Action free essay sample

A comparison has been made between Edmund Burke and his brother, one a famed statesman and orator whose ideas provided the foundation for a widely respected political philosophy, the other, Richard, a man whose name, ideas and thoughts became virtually irrelevant after his death. Few people would question who was more successful. Because Edmund obviously surpassed his brother in fame, it is striking that many who knew the historically insignificant Richard considered him the brother with more natural talent. The difference, then, between the remarkable eighteenth-century thinker and his unsung brother lies in what each did with his respective gifts. Edmund Burke achieved greatness because he took action. While he was young, he worked hard to gain knowledge and experience; as an adult, he used these to form ideas. When he had strong ideas, he turned them into words that influenced the world. Because he was willing to expend great effort in conveying them, his thoughts and ideas attracted followers from many countries and subsequent generations, and he became known as the Father of Modern Conservatism. We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of Action or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Throughout his life, Edmund constantly took action not only to reach personal excellence but also to champion causes. He once said, All that is necessary for the triumph of evil is that good men do nothing, and his accomplishments are evidence that he truly believed it. Such a notable man as Edmund Burke is one worth recognizing, so it is his example that I look to for the basis of my goals. I want to achieve my potential, and promote what is right. I also want always to remember to stand up for truth and what is good. My goal is not recognition such as Edmund Burke received, but I want to pattern my life after him by taking action. What will determine my success is not just my ability to achieve, but my willingness to take action.

Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression Essay Example

Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression Paper The evolutionary view states that all aggressive behavior is a product of genetic programming and inheritance. Every individual is genetically programmed to maximize their fitness. There are two ways 1) reproducing and generating 2) by avoiding predation or by being successful predator.  There are many types of aggression. Male on female aggression – the men uses the violence to keep the women faithful to him. Miller study show that 55 % of battered wives perceived jealousy as reason for husband’s behaviour. The implication is that 45% of women reported that there was no jealousy so other factor must contribute. This explanation is reductionist , because it assumes that there is only one cause. Shackeford investigated the relationship between a women’s age , her husband’s age and the risk that he will murder het. This study found that older man are more likely to kill the younger women. The implication of this is that younger women are more fertile therefore more desirable. From evolutionary theory point of view this iis a product of men’s evolved sexual proprietaries. A second evolutionary explanation of human aggression is the evolution of homicide. One cause of aggression could be a lack of resources. Daly and Wilson carried out a study in Brazil and found that approximately 40% of victims and killers were men that were unemployed and around 70% of male victims and killers were not married. So, the inability to attract a long term partner and a lack of resources appears to lead to social competition and therefore aggression. We will write a custom essay sample on Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer A second cause of aggression could be status. In the EEA, we used to live in small groups and status was very important. A loss of status could have had catastrophic results on reproductive potential and resources. Although this is not the case now, the gene may still exist, so there has been a genome lag which is causing aggression in humans.  However, human aggression focuses too much on the male aspect. Society has changed and therefore the evolutionary explanation may not seem to be as relevant in modern day society. This explanation could be seen as reductionist because it doesn’t explain how females act when they feel jealous. It emphasizes the aggression of men , but does not discuss female aggression in detail.  The methodology of the research can be questioned. As questionnaires and surveys were used, the participants may not always speak the truth. Some may lie to avoid confrontation from their partner. They may receive further abuse from male if he finds out. This explanation of human aggression may not always explain cultural differences. Some cultures do not feel the need of being aggressive and therefore don’t show signs of human aggression. Whilst other cultures may believe being violent can help a male feel dominant.  Therefore, the results cannot be applied to all cultures so not generalisable due to cultural differences that arises between different cultures and countries. The evolutionary explanation can explain why individuals tend to show signs of aggression, this can help people who may feel that another individual is in an aggressive relationship by showing signs highlighted by the male, of an aggressive manner. So the explanation can be applied to real life, and help women in aggressive relationships, who receive violent abuse from males.  Homicide doesn’t have much adaptive value. Duntley and Buss say that once anti-homicide defences begin to evolve, homicide becomes a far more costly strategy to pursue. As a result of this, the evidence is supported that homicide is a extreme form of aggression, but not an adaptive response to dealing with the problem in question. Evolutionary explanation is a nature theory because whole process is driven by evolution. We could argue that it is deterministic because our behaviour is determine by evolution. It is reductionist , because it seems to explain all behaviour as maximising fitness. On the other side it is not completely reductionist because it have more than one explanation of aggression; male on famele, jealousy. There is no many cross cultural research . However this theory expect that there are no cross cultural difference. The implication of this is that culture is reflection of evolution. From the psychodynamic point of view there may be conflict between id and ego. This explanation appears to be scientific, because it talks about gene, but do not specify the gene. Some people claims that this theory is not scientific approach as it is non-flausible. Something that cannot be proven is not scientific.

The Misdemeanors of Well-Educated People in Public Office

The Misdemeanors of Well-Educated People in Public Office One of the most important benefits of education is a virtue, a desirable quality of a leader that well-educated Philippine President Benigno Aquino Jr. failed to demonstrate to his people. Hashtag: #NasaanAngPangulo The Cause and Effect of Educated Leader’s Mixed-up Priorities One of the most important benefits of education is a  virtue, a desirable quality of a leader that well-educated Philippine President Benigno Aquino Jr. failed to demonstrate to his people. The Commander-in-Chief of the Philippine armed forces was absent during the welcome honors ceremony for the 42 brave SAF Commandos who were massacred by members of MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation Front) in Maguindanao, a province South of the Philippines. In grief, the families and relatives of these fallen heroes who were in need of their President’s support and encouragement were left alone and crying #NasaanAngPangulo (Where is the president?). HOW IS  HUMAN DIGNITY VALUED IN THE ACADEMIC SPHERE? Many Filipinos were disillusioned by their President’s lack of compassion and openly expressing their sentiments and criticism through Twitter and other social networking websites. These reactions are mainly focused on President Aquino’s misdemeanor as an educated public servant with mixed-up priorities and reluctance of Malacanang Palace staff to answer public inquiries such as #NasaanAngPangulo or the president’s whereabouts. A Filipino social media user criticized and described their President as a student who was absent during final exam but hopeful to pass the class. In essence, the act of supporting and uplifting the spirit of those who lost their loved ones critically test the extent of a leader’s education and virtue. However, President Aquino failed to take the test, as he was somewhere else minding his other priorities and completely confident on the morality of his political decision. A Filipina lawmaker and a known critic of people in government, on the other hand, hinted about Mr. Aquino’s priorities, when she wittingly blamed Mr. Aquino’s disoriented social priorities on car shows. Another concerned Filipino social media user sharply criticized the conduct of well-educated and intelligent Presidential Staff who conspired and concealed the truth. In this user’s opinion, the staff, in the process of concealing the whereabouts of their beloved president made a mockery of their academic achievement along with the virtues learned from school. Education and Public Expectations The above incident is not only illustrative of the alarming consequence of electing a public official with muddled priorities but also the reality of public’s high regard to education and behavioral expectations on educated individuals. It is quite clear from the public reactions and criticisms that most people see education as both providers of knowledge and developer of virtues or socially desirable behaviors among students. This, in reality, is the academic knowledge that most people believed the educated individual has and being applied not only at work or in pursuing a better life but also in appreciating the needs of others, making equitable decisions, and in recognizing the right priorities. THE VALUE OF ACADEMIC DEBATE The question posed by the mournful families of the fallen heroes’ such as #NasaanAngPangulo, was never meant to satisfy their curiosity on his whereabouts but seeking justice and compassion from an elected leader whom they perceived as intelligent, virtuous, and powerful enough to alleviate their sufferings. However, their expectations were wrong, as the facts about the man they want to see and confide with are even more disheartening. It probably formed an enduring memory of people in government that are unappreciative of the 42 policemen’s heroic deeds, numb and unsympathetic of other people’s feelings and needs, incapable of distinguishing genuine priorities, and a President who actually went to a Mitsubishi plant inauguration instead of solemnly welcoming the remains of their loved ones.

Debate on the causes of global warming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Debate on the causes of global warming - Essay Example While a dialectic method is used, it is used poorly, and there are almost no attempts at synthesis. The main topoi used by all sides are scientific data, but they are used poorly. There are three separate arguments made in the debate. One group of scientists claims that global warming is not occurring, another group claims that global warming is occurring because of natural changes in the earth's climate such as an increase in the level of solar radiation reaching the earth or changes in the patterns of winds, ocean currents, or volcanic activity, and another group claims that global warming is occurring because of an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the large scale combustion of fossil fuels by humans that started during the time of the first industrial revolution and continues up to the present day. There are several different types of arguments used by scientists that deny the existence of global warming. The three main scientific arguments used by that side of the debate are claims that temperatures in the upper atmosphere have fallen in the last few decades, an argument that meteorological data from the last century is inaccurate because of the heat island effect, and a claim that differences in the way that average temperature is measured today cause average temperatures today to appear higher than they were in earlier decades. The claim that the temperatures in the upper atmosphere have fallen in the last few decades is the weakest of the three because there is no scientific proof that temperatures in the upper atmosphere have any correlation with ground temperatures. The temperature data was also slightly modified for scientific reasons in the survey, and scientists who claim that global warming is happening say that it was modified incorrectly. The argument that the heat island effect; or the effect of thermometers in weather stations being in highly developed areas where there are many heat-retaining ground coverings, such as buildings, concrete, and asphalt; is the cause of the observed rise in temperatures is a better argument, but there have been no attempts to analyze the effects of increasing urbanization quantitatively or show the exact levels of new development around each weather station. The claim that average temperatures appear higher because temperatures are now taken four times each day instead of twice is an even better argument, because the temperatures taken at the two other times are usually closer to the daily high than the daily low, and that causes the average daily temperature for each day to appear higher. However, it has been claimed that average highs and average lows have both risen in the past few decades, making this argument seem less convincing. Nonscientific arguments made by scientists and others that claim that glob al warming is not occurring include an argument that there is a global conspiracy against capitalism or the United States by socialists or internationalists using environmental junk science and the argument that most environmentalist scientists thought that there was a pattern of global cooling and the risk of a new ice age in the 1970s. Both arguments are ad hominem attacks. While many of the scientists that support the theory of human-caused Global Warming are extreme environmentalists, there is

Death Penalty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Death Penalty - Essay Example The death penalty should not be used for the mentally ill or youths under the age of 18. Circumstances surrounding each individual case also need to be determined. The most important issue concerning the death penalty is the debate. This issue is far from settled either legally or socially in the United States. Many myths surround the death penalty. â€Å"Among the myths surrounding the death penalty are that it deters violent crime, that it costs less than life imprisonment, that victims’ families demand it, and that organized religion justifies and supports its use† (Catron and Stein-Holmes n.d.:4). If a murderer wants to commit a crime, their main thought is not about the death penalty. If this were the case, states like Texas, Oklahoma, and Virginia would see a decrease in capital offences. Timothy McVeigh would have blown up a Federal building in Iowa, not Oklahoma City. Murderers do not have the morals that a rational law abiding citizen have, which makes them think differently. The death penalty does not serve as a deterrent to crime. Although deterrent hypothesis still exist, they are only a hypothesis (Cloninger and Marchensini 2005:3). Research has not definitely proven the death penalty as a deterrent (Cloninger and Marchensini 2005:3). Another myth is the death pe nalty is cheaper than life imprisonment. The death penalty costs more than life imprisonment (Schaefer 2008:177). Another myth debunked is all families request the death penalty. Some family members do not want the death penalty. Finally not all religions demand the death penalty. An example of an anti-death penalty church is the Catholic Church. These myths should not be used to argue for the death penalty. The United States is the last Western country to implement the death penalty (Catron and Stein-Holmes n.d.:4). Of all execution reported, 92% happened in the United States (36 states/military/Federal government), China, Pakistan, Iraq, and Sudan (Schaefer

Implications of Clonal Genome Evolution for Cancer Medicine Essay

Implications of Clonal Genome Evolution for Cancer Medicine - Essay Example In addition, the authors show their level of knowledge of the topic at hand in that it is pretty fluent going by the information presented in the past, present and future application of genetics in the treatment of cancer. The above implies that the authors have a huge bank of knowledge of the issue. This is a fact that is difficult to refute as even the terms applied in the article only ooze competence in the field by even the comparisons made between certain aspects of cells as found in the research work. Such a thing can only be done by a person with adequate knowledge on the issues at hand, and not anyone who thinks they have adequate information on the topic, which is the case with this article. In order to appeal to the emotions of the audience, the authors apply a number of strategies that come in handy to content delivery. As such, the authors apply facts and the informative nature of the article to appeal to the audience in that, by being based on a science subject, it bring s forth information directly. In relation to this, the article does not leave the audience to seek the important point for themselves but instead, contains every kind of information that the audience would need to comprehend. The pathos of the article begins with the direct statement of the motive or goals of the article and graduates to the evolution of cancer, which is presented with facts about evolutionism, and then goes further to make deductions of the implications of the history to modern times.... th a strong sense of authority in genetics based on the lingo applied to deliver the content, which is a non-hesitant flow of word after word, which all show how much interest the author has. As such, the authors express their interest in the issue following the efforts that have been made in the field of medicine in order to inch closer to some form of treatment and understanding of cancer and its implications. With this in mind, the article shows how much the authors have gone through in order to deliver the content, which is further proof of their vested interest in the subject of evolution and cancer for the audience to pay attention. In addition, the authors show their level of knowledge of the topic at hand in that it is pretty fluent going by the information presented on the past, present and future application of genetics in the treatment of cancer. The above implies that the authors have a huge bank of knowledge of the issue. This is a fact that is difficult to refute as eve n the terms applied in the article only ooze competence in the field by even the comparisons made between certain aspects of cells as found in the research work. Such a thing can only be done by a person with adequate knowledge on the issues at hand, and not anyone who thinks they have adequate information on the topic, which is the case with this article. In order to appeal to the emotions of the audience, the authors apply a number of strategies that come in handy to content delivery. As such, the authors apply facts and the informative nature of the article to appeal to the audience in that, by being based on a science subject, it brings forth information directly. In relation to this, the article does not leave the audience to seek the important point for themselves but instead,

Essence Of Decision A Review Politics Essay

Essence Of Decision A Review Politics Essay Graham Allisons Essence of Decision offered alternative conceptual models on foreign policy decision making and a specific discussion on the Cuban missile crisis; and has been one of the influential book in history of foreign policy analysis. It gives a significant contribution to political science study, as it has been heavily cited in most international relations textbook and also discussed by foreign policy analysts. However, despite the models strong influence in foreign policy study, it has been heavily criticised by foreign policy analysts about its utility and value in decision making analysis. In Essence of Decision, Allison proposes three different lenses that offers a multi-level analysis rather than a regular solely system-level to analyse foreign policy decision making. His first model, Unitary Government Model or Rational Actor Model (RAM) explain government as a black box, thus the internal actors have the same goals and opinion on how to achieve the goal. On the other hand, model II and model III will open the black box and discuss at two different things inside the box and later known as bureaucratic politics model. Model II or Organizational Process Model looks at the key organizational or agencies with their own function, mission and structure. Lastly, Model III or Governmental Politics Model will focus on key individual decision makers and the political bargaining process among them. Nonetheless, Allisons conceptual framework has been not only highly praised by foreign policy analysts, but also has been much criticised since its first edition. Number of criticism has risen regarding Allisons conceptual framework, ranging from its originality until the problem of evidences that have been used by Allison in explaining the Cuban Missile Crises. Conford and Horelick, for example, argue that Allisons model is not wholly original work, rather than it is developed from previous study. Moreover, another group of criticism have questioned the account of the Cuban Missile Crises that explained by Allison. Despite these two criticisms, there are number of criticism that will be discussed in the following section. By looking at number of criticism about Allisons model, there is a big question about the usefulness of the model in foreign policy decision making process analysis. This essay aims to evaluate the utility of Allisons conceptual policy in foreign policy decision making. This essay will also critically discuss each of the three models by looking from some perspectives. Moreover, taking into account that this essay relies on Allisons Essence of Decision, this essay will also look at the decision making process regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis. Allisons Conceptual Framework Model I: The Rational Actor (RAM) Model I is the basic yet critical conceptual framework that mostly utilized in foreign policy decision making analysis. RAM is the best model in explaining and predicting of an individual behaviour, as well as purpose generalization in states action. The model reduces the organizational and governmental political complications by looking at government as unified actor.  [1]  Thus, a complete-informed government -regarded as black box- will process information to optimize rational action. The internal structure within decision making process will calculate the potential pro and con and later rank all the options by their chance to succeed.  [2]   Its feature of being easy to utilize, RAM could be useful when a state has limited or even no available information about the enemy. Therefore, since it does not require information to analyse a case, RAM would be very suits in a crisis situation. It would safe more time since a state does not necessary do a complex evaluation about their enemy. Lastly, RAM that stresses interaction among states, will immediately produce prudent decision after considering the pro and con. Its simplicity in analysing a case makes RAM one of the popular methods in foreign policy decision making process. On the other side, some foreign policy analysts argue that in the real foreign policy formation, number of external and individual interest factor will eventually give a big impact. Moreover, RAM tends to ignore a large state with complex bureaucratic nature that has various kinds of departments with their own different political and ideological perspectives.  [3]  Therefore, along with the argument that intra-national factors are very importantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦yet critical when one is concerned with planning policy, Allison has proposed so-called, Bureaucratic Politics Model.  [4]   Model II: Organizational Process Difficulties will arise when the case that are going to be examined is not the behaviour of an individual or a state with simple bureaucracy model, but the behaviour of one organization or government with complex structure inside. Therefore, Allison provides two alternative conceptual frameworks that will open up the black box to evaluate internal structure inside the government, which is later known as Model II and Model III. Model II or Organizational Process Model focuses on the existing organization and their standard operating procedures (SOP) for gaining information, defining possible option and implementing programme.  [5]  Each organization has an agreement for both its mission and function. Afterward, series of program are developed to carry out those missions. In defining feasible option, Model II argues that it is restricted based on SOP that will enhance performance and efficiency. Moreover, Model II is not optimizing rational actor, as model I does, but rather, it is satisfying decision making actors. Its account that foreign policy outcomes are derive from bureaucratic programs, routines and SOP, makes number of advantage from this model. It emphasizes the important domestic political influences on process of foreign policy decision making that sometimes missed out from RAM. Therefore, model II reminds the analysts that the policy was formed not only by a high level decision-maker, but sometimes it is formed by organization.  [6]   Nevertheless, a set of criticism has arisen in the utility of model II. Its emphasis on organisational culture may ill-serve higher level officials and finally can lead to impair the analysts understanding of organizations and their behaviour.  [7]  Even though this kind of problem does not occur for most of the time, but we can take it as a consideration of the effectiveness of the model. Model III: Governmental Politics Governmental politics model or government bargaining model focuses on key individual decision makers with their great influence in deciding on organizational actor. Moreover, the model assumes that decision makers have different perceptions, priorities, commitments and also organizational positions (where you stand depends on where you sit). Therefore, model III assumes that governmental actions are the result of a political bargaining process among key players. Furthermore, bargaining and negotiation processes will result in satisfying rather than optimizing decision making result. It obviously explained because personal ambition of key actor may diverge from public policy position and may lead to personal power considerations when making decision. Between Allisons three conceptual frameworks, model III adds important detail about domestic politics that obviously, cannot be found in model I. In addition, model III not only explains the roles of key individuals, but it also explains why individuals are working at contrary purposes to the interest of the government as a whole. Lastly, model III gives us explanation why policy sometimes appears to be irrational if we look it from a unitary government perspective. Nevertheless, model III also received many critics, especially on the complexity of the model. It is focus on individual key actor that makes it difficult to study and analyse. Moreover, it requires too many variables, some variable are unknown and it is hard to apply for other countries with unclear bureaucratic politics inside. Criticism toward Allisons conceptual framework Allisons conceptual framework has been attacked by number of criticism, varying from the originality of the model, different interpretation of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the US political system, and also methodological criticism. As Stephen D. Krasner has argued that Allisons model à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is misleading, dangerous, and compelling.  [8]  Therefore, in this section, number of criticism of Allisons model will be critically discussed and assessed. Some foreign policy analysts, such as, Cornford, Horelick, Ball and Art claimed that Allison did not present a pure brand new approach to analysing foreign policy process; but rather it just development from previous theories. Conford has claimed that organisational process mode is previously done by writers such as, Simon, March and Simon, Cyert and March.  [9]  Furthermore, Conford has claimed that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Model IIIà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is pure Neustadt.  [10]  Horelick et al.  [11]  supported Confords argument by suggesting that the bureaucratic model is closely related to previous work done by Kremlinologists.  [12]  Ball and Art  [13]  also mentioned names of analyst that originally make the bureaucratic policy model, such as Huntington, Hilsman, Schilling, and Neustadt.  [14]   Nevertheless, Allison has dedicated a section in his book to acknowledge previous scholars that become his foundation in developing his methods. He is fully aware that he utilizes and developed earlier scholars work as he mentioned in his book, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦this encourages much repackaging of existing theoriesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [15]  Therefore, he identifies a group of writers such as March and Simon, Barnard, Cyert and Simon and so on for foundation of model II.  [16]  Furthermore, Allison also acknowledged his intellectual debt to previous scholars that related to model III paradigm,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦model III variety have attracted increasing attention since 1960à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the publication of Presidential Power by Richard E. Neustadt.  [17]  Hence, we could argue that Allisons originality does not lie in his model, but rather in his approach to apply his models consistently to one particular case study, the Cuban Missile Crisis.  [18]   Another criticism can be seen from methodological perspective; numbers of similarities between model II and model III have shaped ambiguity between those two models. In many occasions, some foreign analysts will combine model II and model III to analyse a case study, including Allison himself. In his article with Halperin, Allison combines those two models and become one major model the bureaucratic politics paradigm- as an alternative model to RAM.  [19]  As Conford argues that the three models is not totally incommensurable model to analyse foreign policy making process.  [20]  Therefore, even though Allison distinguishes three kinds of model in foreign policy analysis, those models is not easily separable in their actual application. In bureaucratic politics model, decision is not arise from one unitary actor, but through some bargaining between organisation structures with their own agenda. Model II and model III have identical characteristics that enable them to be grouped as bureaucratic politics model. The two models are similar in a sense that both models focus on departments and organizations inside the decision maker; however, it is slightly different, in a sense that, if model II will reach a decision through Standard Operation Program, model III will make a decision through bargaining between various players within government. Despite the insignificant difference between those models, they are usually combined as the bureaucratic politics model.  [21]   However, Caldwell has raised bureaucratic politics models major problem regarding the use of evidence and data. The model requires detailed data that hardly available in term of quantity and quality. In addition, Caldwell argued that there is huge possibility for analyst to imposing the model on the evidence rather than testing the model against it. Therefore, bureaucratic politics model has significant problem in analysing the data and evidence, since previous empirical problems show that data was made to fit the model.  [22]   Allisons alternative model has also been argued that it eliminated decision-makers responsibility toward the policy. The strong criticism has risen from Steel and Krasner, which argued that no one, even the President, holds responsibility of the policy as the outcome from bargaining process among bureaucratic groups. As Steel argued that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦where everyone is responsible for a decision, no one is responsible.  [23]  The same argument also comes from Krusnet who argued that bureaucratic politic eliminates the importance of election: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Elections are a farce not because the people suffer from false consciousness, but because public officials are impotent, enmeshed in a bureaucracy so large that the actions of government are not responsive to their will.  [24]  In contrast, Smith argues that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦this criticism is only valid to the extent to which the President is unable to get his wishes carried out.  [25]  Therefore, the criticism from Ste el and Kranser is not applicable for all cases and need to be modified. Furthermore, following previous criticism, there is criticism about Allisons model utility to other countries. Even though Allison clearly points out his intention to present two additional frameworks to other countries foreign policy analysis (not only limited to the US and Soviet Unions policy making)  [26]  , a group of writers has argued the inability of the model to analyse foreign policy behaviour in other countries, to be precise, un-industrialized countries. As Hill has noted that there is a growing consensusà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦over the inapplicability of the insights of Allison, et al. to foreign policy-making inside less modernised states.  [27]  Migdal has also argued that the model cannot be applied to the countries that do not have stability of organizational structure, routine, and even bargaining process.  [28]  Moreover, Brenner also argues that Allisons model is not a universal model and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦more distinctive in the United States than elsewhere.  [ 29]  Despite all criticisms regarding its utility to other countries, Weil has proved, in fact, the model could be utilised in the North Vietnamese foreign policy analysis. As Weil notes that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦examining North Vietnamese foreign policy decision making from a governmental politics perspective complements understanding gained from a rational actor analysis.  [30]   Nevertheless, analists argued that the model is not even applicable to the Soviet Union, although the Soviet Union foreign policy has been heavily discussed in Essence of Decision. It is not only because the model requires more specific information than is available, but also as Dawisha has noted that the bureaucracy in some countries (e.g. the Soviet Union) is fundamentally different from its position in the United States because the persistent influence of the Communist Party.  [31]  Therefore, there is a doubt about the utility of Allisons model in other countries, as Wagner has pointed out, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the extension of Allisons model III to other countries may be a less straightforward enterprise than he implies.  [32]   Singapores defence posture change in the early 1980s In the early 1980s, Singapore announces a major important change in its defence policy, from a defensively deterrent strategy (poisonous shrimp) to a more actively deterrent strategy (known as the porcupine). In an article done by Pak Shun Ng, he applies Allisons model to analyse Singapores domestic decision making process. Pak Shun Ng treats Singapore as unitary rational actor to utilizing model I (RAM); the military organisations as the unit of analysis for model II; lastly, the military and political party leadership (including senior military leaders and civilian leaders of Singapores ruling party, the Peoples Action Party (PAP)) as units of analysis for model III.  [33]  The article argues that model II and model III provide the most reasonable explanation of the change in Singapores defence position in the 1980s; while model I has failed to fully explain the change. Model II first reveals the appropriate development of both Singapores military capability and military planni ng ability. Furthermore, model III then prove details how the Singapore Armed Force (SAF) could announce the change convincingly to improve its stature among Singaporeans and foreigners by persuasive them that Singapore has appropriate capability to defend and survive any potential threat.  [34]  Even though the article heavily honours the utility of Allisons model, but it still proposes modification of the models in order to be able to analyse a decision making process in a small and non-western states under absence of crisis condition. Furthermore, the case study of Singapores policy making shows the evidence of model II and III complete each other and make one alternative model against RAM, namely, the bureaucratic politic model. Therefore, it supports the criticism that previously discussed that Allisons models, especially model II and III, have strong similarities and hardly separate. The utility of Allisons model also can be tested in the US foreign policy in Iran hostage crisis in 1979. The bureaucratic politics model is applicable in analysing the decision making process under President Carter administration. The key group in Carters government consisted of number individual who have important position in the executive branch, and also political outsiders that rarely well known, yet have close personal relations to the President. Within the key group that were known as the Georgia mafia, there are two closest advisors for the President; the chief of staff, Hamilton Jordan and Carters press secretary, Jody Powell. Even though these two advisors are not familiar in politic and foreign policy process, they were loyal and intelligent. When sixty American were taken hostage at the American embassy in Iran on 4 November 1979, the initial response from Carter is criticised to be quite slow. On 11 November, the US gave economy sanction by initiating embargo of Iranian oil. While the economy sanction was undertaken, there were ongoing debates about the next step dealing with the crisis. There were two major options; a commando raid to rescue hostages and outright air strikes and military blockades.  [35]  Here we can clearly see how each faction in the government has their own argument to propose to the President is clearly explained by Allisons bureaucratic politics model. A strong debate was occurred between Secretary of State, Cyrus Vance; National Security Advisor, Zbigniew Brzenzinsky and Carters inner circle, Powell and Jordan. Vance was explicitly being in opposition to any military action after considering that American allies would not tolerate such behaviour. Therefore, he believed that the national security of the US could be maintained without endangering the lives of sixty American citizens.  [36]  On the other side, Brzezinsky strongly opposed military measure as the best means to protect Americas vital interests.  [37]  Moreover, the argument was supported by the director of the CIA, Stanfield Turner, after considering the CIAs best estimates that 60 percent of the hostages could be killed as a result of very complex rescue process. These two faction also argued that they are responsible for the national security, roughly 250 million Americans, and they couldnt simply compromised for the sake of sixty hostages. The final faction c ame from Carters inner circle, including Powell and Jordan, who were concern about the impact of Iran hostage crisis on upcoming election in 1981. The President concurred Vances opinion that a negotiated settlement would be the best for maintaining both national interest and national security. As the response of Carters decision, he received public support, which is important for the upcoming election. However, after considering the effectiveness of the plan, Powell and Jordan opposed the President for tough action against Iranians, again, in order to win the election. In the end, with strong pressure from some faction and absence of Vance in decision making process at the time, Carter called for an immediate military rescues on April 11. The military rescue plan ended in failure with crash of number of helicopters and planes; and killing eight US servicemen. Finally, in 1981s election, Reagan came into power and selesai lah sudah This illustrates the absence of one faction who opposes one specific argument could impact the decision making process as a whole.

David Thoreau Civil Disobedience

Ricardo Henry David Thoreau Civil Disobedience Throughout history the government’s gained too much power are likely to be corrupt. It is up to citizens to go against government and get rid of any negativity. In order to change the government citizens should vote for an individual who can change the country in a positive way. Henry David Thoreau was a philosopher, observer, and writer best known for his attacks on American social institutions and his respect for nature and simple living. He believed in civil disobedience in order to disagree with government rules.Henry David Thoreau was not like the average American because he was not materialistic which is shown in his  free thought, importance of nature, and self-reliance toward the government. Thoreau kept a journal as a source for his published writings and lectures. He was a very motivated writer and habituary classics such as Greek, Latin and English texts. He also read sacred writing of the Hindus that was a big influe nce on cosmic vision in Walden. Thoreau starts to question authority in Walden. Thoreau spent his night in local jail in a protest against the proslavery agenda of the war against Mexico; he refused to pay his poll tax. The experience would inspire resistance to civil government, at a later time this could be a major debate on relationship of the individual to the state† (Thoreau 827). He believed in nonviolence ideals and was thrown in jail for being against the law and not paying taxes. For example, Mahatma Gandhi led Indians to protest against the salt tax in order to achieve independence against the British.Thoreau’s views on civil disobedience influenced the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Civil disobedience was an act of willful resistance and it is the duty of all American citizens. Martin Luther King uses Thoreau’s strategy in order to not obey the law as he wanted to end racial inequality in America. He criticizes American social institution and poli cies such as slavery. In order to resolve conflicts Thoreau insisted that all principled action had to be undertaken by the individual rather than through groups. When the government is unjust people should refuse to follow the law and stay away from it at all cost.American government is unjust for the practice of aggressive war and supporting slavery. Thoreau explains the differences between social classes in American society. Henry Thoreau likens Americans to horses and dogs. They are commonly esteemed good citizens. However, legislator, lawyers, ministers do not make moral distinction and serve the devil, and do not rely on God. Thoreau suggested to readers â€Å"A wise man will only be useful as a man and will not submit to be clay but leave that office to his dust. He who gives himself to his fellow men appears as useless and selfish.He who gives himself partially to them is a philanthropist† (Thoreau 831). At that time government was devious and they started trading sla ves. This shows that an honest man needs to rebel against government and stand up for themselves. As evidence Thoreau mentions that he did not pay any poll-tax for six years. He was thrown to jail for one night. The state will force him to obey the law, punish is body, and to think like them. Thoreau defends his lifestyle and mentions that he is a sojourner in civilized life. He tells the reader that he does charity to help poor students in school.When release from prison he starts to pay his taxes to support students who are going to school. Old people do not have any important advice to tell young generations. They faced many failures in their lives. Throughout the years dressing in this country was a dignity of art. Sailors make shift to wear clothing and every generation laughs at old fashions and tries on the new one. The factory system is best way for men to get clothing. The industry grows as more people buy clothes. According to Food, Shelter, Clothing, and Fuel are the basi c survival tool for people.Thoreau wanted to build his own house by Walden Ponds — He went for days cutting and hewing timber to design the size of the house. By April the house was framed and all set up and bought shanty of James Collins. Collins was an Irishman who worked on Fitchburg Railroad for boards. He had a roof, good window, and walls in the house. Thoreau paid him 4 dollars and 25 cents for Collins to take possession of the house and to not sell it to anyone else. Seeley was another Irishman who represents spectatordom and help with the removal of the Gods of Troy.If a student wishes to shelter he can rent annually to have a place in his house. Thoreau started planting eleven acres of potatoes, corn, peas, and turnips in order to pay unusual expenses while building his house. He made more money than any farmer in Concord at that time. He realized that it would be problem to obtain food such as animal as a source of health and strength. People should life free and u ncommitted in order to appreciate your farm. Thoreau’s explained citizen to work on your farm until death and not to do farming and quit at some point. If men would steadily observe realities only and not allow themselves to be deluded life to compare it with such things. People should respect music and poetry. Men establish and confirm daily life of routine and habit everywhere which is built in illusionary foundations† (Thoreau 895). He is basically saying that people should start to be nicer to others, appreciate poetry, and to stay from things that are useless for the future. Henry David Thoreau was not like the average American because he was not materialistic which is shown in his  free thought, importance of nature, and self-reliance toward the government.Since he kept a journal as a source for his published writings and lectures. Thoreau’s views on civil disobedience influence the civil rights movement in the 1960s. He also explains the differences betw een social classes in American society. He defends his lifestyle and mentions that he is a sojourner in civilized life. Last, he explains food, shelter, clothing, and fuel are the basic survival tool for people. If people work, and put their mind together they can achieve a balance society where people can be happy.

Abdominal Aortic Aneursyms Essay

Aneurysms were first described by the 16th century anatomist and physician Vesalius, who believed they were simply a widening of the vessel (Collin et al 2009). An abdominal aneurysm (AAA) is a condition in which the abdominal aorta (a large blood vessel that supplies blood to the abdominal, pelvis and the lower limbs) becomes large and ballooning leading to the development of several symptoms. The condition more often occurs in males compared to females. It occurs more frequently in above the age 60. When the aortic aneurysm is larger than size, it is more likely to rupture causing life-threating problems. This is a medical emergency requiring critical care. This complication is present in about 20% of the people affected with AAA. Another complication with AAA is aortic dissection in which the innermost membrane of the blood vessel ruptures due to the intense pressure causing blood to be filled within the wall of the artery. The exact cause of the disorder has still not been unders tood clearly, but several risk factors may be present including:- See more:Â  The 3 Types of Satire Essay * Hypertension * High cholesterol levels * Obesity * Emphysema * Genetic factors * Smoking (Albright JL. 2006 & Hallett JW. 2008) Individuals affected with AAA initially may not have any symptoms. Symptoms of the condition usually develop suddenly due to rupture of the wall or breakage of the innermost wall. Sudden rupture of the abdominal aortic aneurysm, often without prior medical warning, is the 13th leading cause of morality in the US (Li, Z 2006). Some of the symptoms that can develop in AAA include:- * Abdominal pain (which may be severe, consistent and radiates to the legs, groin and the buttocks region) * Pulsations in the abdomen & palpitations * Nausea and vomiting * Anxiety and agitation * Abdominal rigidity * Cold and clammy skin * Presence of the abdominal mass * Excruciating pain in the limbs and back, when the AAA ruptures * Fatal outcomes in the case of ruptured AAA(Albright JL. 2006 & Hallett JW. 2008) When the AAA is small in size (less than 5 centimeters), no treatment is required. Antihypertensive may be needed to prevent any further complications from developing. Besides, if the individual has any risk factors that can worsen the condition, it needs to be rectified immediately (such as giving up smoking, weight reduction, lowering cholesterol levels, etc.). Periodic evaluations have been recommended to ensure that any risk can be identified and immediately taken care of (Albright JL. 2006 & Hallett JW. 2008). Surgery is required if the AAA is larger than 5.5 centimeters in size, as the risk for rupture or dissection is present. The Aneurysmal defect is repaired by inserting a surgical graft. This can be performed by two method namely the conventional approach or the endovascular approach. In the conventional approach, general anesthesia is utilized. A surgical incision is made below the breast bone, the aneurysm defect identified, and the graft material sutured in position. The entire procedure takes about 5 hours and a stay of at least a week in the hospital is required. The second approach is the endovascular stent grafting in which regional anesthesia is administered and a catheter is introduced through the femoral artery present in the groin region. This catheter contains the stent graft. It is gradually guided into position using imaging techniques. Once it is position, the stent graft is opened ensuring a stable blood flow. The procedure takes about 3 hours can require a stay of about 3 days in the hospital (Albright JL. 2006 & Hallett JW. 2008). Several imaging techniques play a very important role in diagnosing and treating AAA. These include ultrasound, CT scans and angiography. Abdominal ultrasound is one of the preferred examinations for AAA. Ultrasound of the abdomen is also required following convention surgery to monitor the repaired AAA closely. It is usually performed as an initial imaging modality due to several factors including:- * Portability * Absence of ionizing radiation * Low costs * Easy availability (Radvany MG. 2006) Angiography involves administration of a contrast media into the femoral artery present in the groin region and then taking X-rays to determine the condition of the abdominal aorta. It is very useful before conventional and endovascular surgery for planning. It also seems to be very useful in the case of aortic dissection. However, angiography also carries a few risks including:- * Damage to the artery * Hypotension * Infection of blood vessel * Embolism and clot formation * Bleeding and heart attack (Bentley-Hibbert S. 2007 & Radvany MG. 2006). If the abdominal ultrasound and AAA greater 5 centimeters, than a CT scan of the abdomen is required. The CT scan can better help to plan the surgical intervention as the images provide a lot of detail (including involvement of the renal arteries, size of the aneurysm, amount of calcification, presence of mural thrombi, etc.). The accuracy of CT scans is said to be 100%. They provide a lot of details regarding the size of the aneurysm and also about distal and proximal issues. CT even with contrast media cannot be utilized to study dissection aneurysm or the presence of the extent of mural thrombus. They are also required following endovascular graft surgery for a period of 6 months as a post-procedural follow-up measure (Radvany MG. 2006). MRI scans of the abdomen are required when the side-effects of the contrast media used in other techniques could be potential damaging to the patient (in case of kidney or liver problems) or when radiation is contra-indicated. The images provide a lot of detail and are accurate. However, MRI cannot be performed in individuals with cardiac pacemakers. CT and MRI scanning also have other advantages including:- * Provides details regarding extent of involvement * Determine involvement of major blood vessels (Radvany MG. 2006) Reference list Albright JL. Abdominal aortic aneurysm. Medline Plus. Available at: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000162.htm Accessed October 20, 2012. Bentley-Hibbert S. Aortic angiography. Medline Plus. Available at: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003814.htm Accessed October 26, 2012. Hallett JW. Aneurysms. 2008. The Merck Manual. Available at: http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec03/ch035/ch035b.html Accessed October 26, 2012. Li Z. Effects of blood flow and vessel geometry on wall stress and rupture risk of abdominal aortic aneurysms. Journal Of Medical Engineering & Technology [serial online]. September 2006;30(5):283-297. Available from: Computer Source, Ipswich, MA. Accessed October 24, 2012. Radvany MG et al. Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm, Diagnosis. E-Medicine. 2006. Available at: http://www.emedicine.com/Radio/topic1.htm Accessed October 24, 2012. Woodrow P. Abdominal aortic aneurysms: clinical features, treatment and care. Nursing Standard [serial online]. August 17, 2011;25(50):50. Available from: Advanced Placement Source, Ipswich, MA. Accessed October 24, 2012.

War Upon A Plant

War Upon A Plant The War Upon A Plant Within the last century our government has established laws against certain substances and chemicals labeled drugs. These drugs are often used for recreational use and can have dangerous side affects. Substances within this category include cocaine, methamphetamines, heroin, lsd, and marijuana. Marijuana being illegal is a controversial subject with many advocates petitioning for legalization. Many countries around the world have made marijuana legal and accessible. In Holland marijuana and hashish (a product made of concentrated marijuana into a brown hard chunk which is smoked or eaten) are openly sold in shops and restaurants. Canada and Austria have made laws prohibiting the production of marijuana for sale, allowing for personal consumption. I personally have been to shops in Europe where seeds for personal cultivation are sold. I also have a friend in Salzburg who grows his own marijuana plants but does not sell the product. I am one person who does not agr ee with the laws that prohibit the marijuana plant.English: Four ounces of low-grade marijuana, usual...If marijuana were legalized our country would experience many positive side effects with few negative concerns.The plant known as marijuana has been used among human cultures for thousands of years. Marijuana has been used in many forms: eaten, smoked, used in clothing and rope productions, and even religious rituals and ceremonies. Marijuana is considered a recreational drug, often compared to alcohol and tobacco. When consumed marijuana often has mental and physical affects upon the consumer, causing relaxation and inducing hunger. The side effects of marijuana are not many, long term use has show to decrease memory and in some cases harm the lungs and liver. In certain cases, when marijuana is smoked, the user can experience slow reaction in thought and loss of decisive capabilities. Marijuana is not proven to have any cancer causing...

The producers of British and Irish film use a set of codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain. True or not true Essay Example

The producers of British and Irish film use a set of codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain. True or not true Essay Example The producers of British and Irish film use a set of codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain. True or not true Essay The producers of British and Irish film use a set of codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain. True or not true Essay I have chosen the film Shirley Valentine, 1989 to show that I agree that the producers of British and Irish films use a set of codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain. I will discuss Margaret Thatcher and her policies; I will discuss how Britain saw a revolution during Thatchers reign as Prime Minister and how by 1989, the time of the films release the country was completely different to how it had been before. Social Mobility will be the main subject as I discuss the question. The reason for this is because the film puts emphasis on this throughout. I will also discuss Class Crazed Britain and how this affected us at the time.The Mise en scene will be used to analyse the particular sequence I will use to prove that producers of British and Irish film use a set of codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain, although I will discuss other elements of film making also. Narrative, Genre, Cinematography, Editing and Sound.In 1989, Britain was led by Marg aret Thatcher. By this time she had been in power for ten years and made radical changes to the country-radical changes that would deem significant forever. She decided that we should no longer be living in a welfare state. A state that Edward Heath created after the war to give the country stability. He provided Britain with The NHS, housing estates, better education, transport and benefits leading to TAX and National Insurance. Thatcher believed the state should now have a lesser role and people would have to work themselves out of poverty. Margaret Thatcher was responsible for the right to buy scheme. Enabling council house residents to buy their homes at a discounted rate. This was the turn of an era for most people, especially people from working class communities who had never envisaged this could be possible.Free Enterprise was another radical change under Thatchers power. All major organisations such as British Rail, British Gas and the Public Transport systems were privatis ed. Thatcher was to turn everything around in the way that the job of the Civil Service was no longer to manage Britains decline from the days of the empire.All Thatchers policies caused uproar in the UK. Interest rates rocketed, as did unemployment and numerous strikes were held as rebellion against the Iron Lady. Most significantly, the 1984-85 Miners Strike. A massive piece of history which caused mass heartache and destruction amongst decimated mining communities to this day.Although Thatcherism is now sometimes used as a term of abuse she was also responsible for making things possible that had been unimaginable until now. People now owned their own homes giving them the freedom to move elsewhere-somewhere they could choose, social mobility had increased-especially for women. It was now more acceptable for women to have their own independence, have careers and be counted. The media was now offering productions of a different nature. It was no longer giving the idea that you sho uld marry for life even if youre unhappy. It was now thought of as acceptable to follow your heart and push the boundaries. In the film Shirley Valentine, we see the transition. We see a woman in a dull marriage living the same day every day. Although she isnt in an abusive relationship she does feel guilt in the way that she had made her choice and would have to stick to it. She refers to marriage as Like the Middle East, Theres no solution. We then see her discover that her life isnt doomed to Groundhog Day and that she can still go places.By 1989, the time of the release of Shirley Valentine, Thatcher had only one year left to reign. The film continuously gives the audience evidence to prove it was set in a time just after the country had seen a revolution. By the 1980s, films like Shirley Valentine were fairly common. We were living in a class crazed country which had evolved from Thatchers right to buy scheme. People were now elevating themselves to higher classes believing it was their right as a homeowner, although realistically they were still in the same class as always. Women were rebelling against their stereotypical housewife roles and daring to be controversial, meaning divorce was becoming more accessible and popular.The codes and conventions are shown in all the macro and micro elements of British film making-Narrative and Genre, being macro elements and Mise en scene, Editing, Cinematography and Sound, being micro elements. The Narrative is ultimately the story. However the Narrative is constructed in a certain way in order to tell the story in a way we understand. Shirley Valentine, a middle aged housewife with no other purpose in life but to cook steak and chips for her husband, wins an all expenses paid holiday to Greece where she finds her true self and breaks free from her faceless, meaningless life in Liverpool. The Genre would be popular with women of the same era as the character. The Mise en scene should tell the audience where they ar e geographically and historically. In the case of Shirley Valentine I Established we were in Liverpool in the 1980s. The Editing, Cinematography and Sound all work together to move us across scenes and chapters. The four micro elements are put together to create a reality within the film.According to French Theorist Roland Barthes, we use a set of signs to read a film and its language. An approach called semiotics. We sub consciously absorb these signs, relating them to pieces of history meaning we can then understand what we see and hear without finding it confusing in any way. This leads us to the power of the suspension of disbelief. The suspension of disbelief enables us to hold back our desire to question what we see. Some films need us to suspend our disbelief more than others. Films with a complex Narrative which may not be from the realms of reality would require more suspension of disbelief. Films in the Genre of Shirley Valentine can be believed as actually happening in re al life. Something absolutely possible.When analysing Shirley Valentine, the signs which Roland Barthes discovered and the codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain are apparent throughout. I have chosen one particular scene to reinforce we were living in Thatcher Britain at the time of production.Shirley and her husband Jo obviously own their own house and in the film Jo runs his own business. Shirley doesnt have to go to work which was probably saw as luxury in 1989. As Shirley is doing her morning cleaning, Shirleys neighbour Gillian knocks at the door to ask a favour of Shirley. Although Shirley, as I said before is a homeowner and doesnt need to work, she speaks with the same broad Liverpudlian accent and never claims to be above her station. The neighbour however, conforms to the class crazed society discussed earlier. She speaks with the Queens English and constantly informs Shirley of her Status. Gillians husband, Eric has to go to Brussels on business and s he requires Shirley to feed their Vegetarian Bloodhound.Gillian remarks on the trip as, such a bore, I said to him I really dont know why it couldnt be Paris or even Amsterdam. The street which Shirley lives on is a typical suburban street and the Mise en scene creates a typical 1980s house with lots of peachs and pinks, carpets with loud patterns and curtains draped in an equally loud pattern. A Street that would have no place for genuine aristocracy. A status the neighbour desperately aspires to be. As discussed earlier the right to buy scheme introduced by Thatcher gave people the chance to choose not to be another council house resident-the same as everybody else. Margaret Thatcher once said, There is no such thing as society, there are only individuals.I have discussed the 1980s and the state of the country during this time. I have discussed the things that became possible during this decade such as social mobility, a new desire to be a high class citizen and the lapse attitude people now had towards marriage and even life in general. I have explained Thatchers policies and how the country saw a massive change in the way things were run and I have referred to a particular sequence in the film Shirley Valentine that reinforces the question being asked. The producers of British and Irish film do use a set of codes and conventions to reinforce the myths about Britain.

Persuasive Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Persuasive - Essay Example According to Alan Keith of Genentech, leadership is about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen. An effective leader has many qualities and characteristics which help them in running any type of an organization. This paper aims at dealing with being just as an important leadership quality. There are many definitions of justice according to different scholars and books. Justice can be defined as upholding of what is just, especially fair handling and due prize in accordance with standards, honor, or law. In other words it is the principle of moral rightness; equity. It advocates on treating situations in an organization with fairness and equality (Spillane 28-23). Injustices in any organization may be based differently. For example, there can be injustice according to race, tribe, religion, gender, family relations, or even jealousy. A good leader must be totally unbiased. They ought to not have personal bests in their team, to whom they give more power or less labor. All the members in a team should be treated equally without favoritism and discrimination. Whenever group activities are mandatory, the appearance of a leader becomes imminent. A group always works efficiently when there is a leader to guide the members and keep them aggravated on their way to success. With no a superior head, a group will not be able to do to the best of its abilities. Nevertheless, as much is it essential to have a leader, it is also important that they have the right character and the required skills. Having a bad head is even worse than having no head at all (Zaccaro 17-9). In case one wants to be a leader, one needs to cultivate certain skills and qualities in them, one of which is justice. Having a leader who is biased and does not uphold justice may lead to conflicts in the organization and it may have many hazardous effects like drop in productivity of the group and the company at large.

Choose one Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Choose one - Essay Example They think creatively and can perform activities which other children of their age cannot and this factor creates problems in social and emotional adjustment of such children. Parents of such children who are gifted in any sense should acknowledge and understand the emotional needs of their child. Going for extremes is a very wrong strategy often implemented by parents. It is because controlling a child severely and hiring foreign coaches for training purpose can have negative effects. The tutors or coaches hired by the parents can use aggressive methods for training such talented children stubbornly overlooking their individual preferences and such a pattern of coaching can inculcate overwhelmingly strong feelings of rejection and anxiety in the child. Instead of grooming of the talent, complete severe controlling in terms of hiring tutors who may rely on aggressive techniques or subjecting the child to make use of options he/she may not want to use, can potentially ruin any excepti onal skills or talent such a child may have been born with. As in case of the movie (Searching for Bobby Fischer) when Joshua Waitzkin is discovered with a rare chess talent, his parents hire a strict coach Bruce Pandolfini for him who tries to control him by trying to transform him into someone else. In contrast, doing nothing at all to influence a child’s interests in fear of ruining the talent and pushing the limits is another extreme and should be considered a flawed parenting strategy by all. This is because not playing any role to make sure the talent is groomed and developed with time could also lead a child to slack off and not make full use of his/her skills. This is also because childhood is an age when children have raw minds and are not in the position to make mature decisions about themselves. Such incapability to decide for themselves coupled with total absence of any kind of parental supervision can execute harmful influence on a child’s raw talent. On g rounds of obnoxious influences produced by extreme parental strategies I feel compelled to stress on using mid way approaches when intending to groom a gifted child’s talent. It is implied by a Polish child psychologist and psychiatrist Dabrowski (cited in Silverman 113) that creatively gifted children are emotionally more complex than others and exhibit more pronounced and well developed responses to various types of external stimuli. Examining the moral sensitivity in highly intelligent, sensitive, and creative children, it is identified that external stimuli in the form of anger, frustration, pressure, and disappointment can all have disastrous effects on the gifted children and as they are claimed to be more emotionally groomed, they can show more sensitive responses to any such stimuli. Now children learn mostly from their parents and raising and nurturing a gifted child can prove to be very challenging for the parents. Responsive parenting could be one effective approac h in this regard. Spending enough time with the talented children is one way by which parents can effectively relate to them and tune in to their exceptional interests. Many times parents

Style of Chinese Negotiation Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Style of Chinese Negotiation - Case Study Example In forming such joint venture arrangements, the challenges the Chinese business negotiations pose is so great that there had been instances that many a number of business deals between China and other western countries including USA had failed because of poor negotiations. As John Graham and Mark Lam (2003) see this is because often "Americans see Chinese negotiators as inefficient, indirect and even dishonest, while the Chinese see American negotiators as aggressive, impersonal and excitable". Differences in the management style and problems in negotiations have deep cultural origins. Despite these hindrances, it is possible to win the negotiations with Chinese businessmen, provided a clear understanding of the social, cultural and economic aspects of the negotiation with Chinese entrepreneurs is evolved. This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the intricacies of Chinese negotiations including the cultural background of such negotiations. The paper also deals with the influence of Confucian traits like hierarchy, harmony and faces on communication, characteristics of communication and the Chinese perception of negotiation. Further the paper will also discuss the challenges the Chinese negotiation process poses for managing the international business in China. 2.0 Literature Review: A number of studies had been conducted in the area of business negotiations of the Sino - Western and Sino - American joint venture arrangements. These studies which started around the 1980s have made an in-depth study into the peculiarities of the negotiations of business deals with Chinese government and businessmen. Most important studies have been conducted by Blackman 1997; Chen 1993; Davidson 1987; Deverge 1986; Fang 1999; Frankenstein 1986; Lee and Lo 1988; Pye 1982; Stewart & Keown 1989; Tung 1982. The primary objective of these studies is to bring out an exhaustive narration of the socio-cultural implications of the negotiations with the Chinese and the intricacies thereof. It cannot be said that these studies have completely made the recommendations for the successful negotiation of business deals with the Chinese business empires. An abstract of these studies is detailed in the following sections. 3.0 Role of Culture in Chinese Negotiation: The Chinese culture which is 5000 years old has large influence on their business negotiations. The rural origin of a majority of the people has made them to retain their agrarian values. Social and economic theories attached more importance to the agricultural base rather than commerce and business. Because of the rural base, the human values assumed more prominence in the negotiations than the business profits and gains. John Graham and Mark Lam (2003) say that "Chinese negotiators are more concerned with the means than the end; with the process more than the goal." 'Morality' is the next aspect of culture that greatly affects the Chinese negotiations. Confucianism, which is a 2500 years ancient Chinese philosophical tradition, makes morality the all pervasive factor throughout the negotiation process. For coherence sake, the detailed discussion on 'Confucianism' is included in the section on Chinese Business Culture. The Chinese

Contradicting Notions of the Public Sphere Essay Example for Free

Contradicting Notions of the Public Sphere Essay The notion of Public Sphere by Jurgen Habermas is representative of the social realities of his country. In the same way, Nancy Fraser’s comment on Habermas’s Public Sphere reflects the society she is in. Therefore, their notions of Public Sphere contradict due to their different backgrounds. Considering this idea, readers should consider the backgrounds of the two authors in analyzing their concepts. In analyzing the notion of Public Sphere in the view of Habermas, let us consider the economic situation of Germany. On the one hand, we can say that Habermas’s notion of public is comprised of individuals who have enough food, shelter, clothing, education, employment, or other means of living.   Germany is a stable country, considering its GNP, and small population. On the other hand, the United States is resided by people of different backgrounds, from the poor, the average, up to the rich and wealthy, the Whites, the Blacks, and other migrants, etc. These people who comprise the population of America dictate to Fraser her notion of the public sphere. Considerably, Habermas’s concept of Public Sphere is very ideal. Its idealism actually makes it delimiting of the public it addresses. We can say that the public Habermas portrays or uses to conceptualize his thoughts is basically European. It does not consider the marginalized, the oppressed, or simply those who are experiencing sufferings and demarcation, such as the women, the uneducated, the unemployed or the multicultural population. In conceiving the public sphere as private people coming together as a public, debating over some publicly relevant topics, Habermas was thinking of unity and understanding among the sectors of the public. As such, there is nothing wrong with his ideas of voicing out public opinion within the Public Sphere; in fact it would be beneficial to both the government and the people. Habermas gives an account of the elements necessary to form a democratic country. He addresses this as the bourgeois Public Sphere, which has four primary elements. This sphere, he claims, entirely disregards status, and gives opportunity for everyone to share in the discussion. In other words, he proposes an inclusive Public sphere. Additionally, the discussion within the Public Sphere should address socio -political problems that need to be solved. Habermas considers the evolution of the public sphere he conceptualizes. It started with the bourgeois discussing in coffee shops, salons, and other familiar places. It later comprised the media, as the bourgeois in the 18th century established printing press, news companies, etc. Further consideration of this point suggests the use of media resources for gaining and expressing public opinion, which later limited the said public sphere to those in power. On the contrary, Fraser considers the notion of having the Public Sphere comprised of individuals from all walks of life. She claims that what Habermas proposes is not inclusive, but rather exclusive of those who are educated, and well-to-do. It therefore marginalizes the poor from the rich, and discriminates, in a way, the women and the multicultural individuals. She further argues that it is impossible to claim inclusiveness as marginalized groups are not considered part of the universal public. They themselves formed their own public spheres, which the author termed as counterpublics. She further offers a modern conception of the hegemonic public sphere, which opens up the political realm to everyone. She states that rather than ruling by power, there is now rule by the majority. To deal with the hegemonic domination, repressed groups form into Subaltern counterpublics to represent those who share their ideologies. The marginalized have learned to express themselves, and are working together toward a certain goal. Both authors have their good notions of the Public Sphere. Each works for the common good of the people. In Habermas, we can see that the Public Sphere he proposes is a way to resolve problems in the government and economy of a certain country. In addition, he proposes a body that watches over the public, an organized group of individuals who aim for an honest and successful governance. In her paper, Fraser shares the view that people have formed a Public Sphere that recognizes and represents every individual. She formulates that this sphere would be more representative of the people as it listens and learns from the marginalized sector in society. She disagrees with Habermas that regarding forming a public sphere of the knowledgeable, the more privileged.   In evaluating these two views, we must remember to consider the perspective of the authors. As mentioned above, Habermas who came from Germany may have only considered the society he was exposed to, in coming up with his own notion of Public Sphere. In contrast, Fraser who was exposed to multiculturalism in America may have applied her views in the Public Sphere she proposed. As such, the two authors came up with contradicting beliefs, since they had conflicting societies. Works Cited Habermas, Jà ¼rgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. (English Translation). Cambridge Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1989. Alterity. 13 February 2005. Retrieved 25 March 2008 http://www.zephoria.org/alterity/archives/2005/02/nancy_fraser_re.html. Fraser, Nancy. Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy. Social Text 25 (26): 56-80. Duke University Press, 1990.